Rob Daigeneau  

Burns, Edward McNall. The Counter Reformation. Princeton : D. Van Nostrand Company, 1964.  

Burns begins by describing the political and religious environment of the sixteenth century in order to present the idea of not only how but also why the Reformation came aboutbegan.  He then proceeds to define the term Reformation so there is a clear understanding for the rest of the work.  Burns believes that the Reformation was “not simply a religious movement, but [the Reformation] had a political, social, and economic character as well.” (12) The underlying beliefs of the Reformation were not new; they had been outlined years earlier by the mystics.  They did not advocate the overthrow of the Church but wished to have less worldly and more spiritual religion within the framework of the existing church.  Burns then discusses the invocation of the Council of Trent and its achievements as well as its downfalls.  “The Council of Trent seemed anxious to establish the supremacy of faith over reason instead of bring the two into harmony.” (57) Despite the fact that it took steps toward reform, Burns regarded the Council as a failure because it offered no reconciliation with the Protestants.  He also cites the effects of the Reformation and the Counter Reformation on society.  Burns asserts that intolerance and persecution were commonplace.  Over 30,000 persons were put to death for the alleged crime of entering into compacts with Satan. (78) Burns held the belief that although witchcraft persecutions had begun earlier, “it was not until after the beginning of the Reformation that witchcraft persecutions became a mad hysteria.” (79) Even considering this statement, benefits did arise from the Reformation: educational reforms occurred.  Luther repeatedly urged civil authorities to “compel people to send their children to school” and John Calvin regarded school as a “public necessity.”(87) Each held the belief that schools should be maintained at public expense.  

Very few writers go to the extent of defining their terms in order to create a greater and more universal understanding of their work.  Instead they assume there is a general vocabulary base of their readers.  Burns, however, goes to great lengths to ensure that he defines all terms so there can be no discrepancy.  The fluidity of the work has greatly benefited because of this effort.  He also takes time in order to refute misleading beliefs of the time.  Many historians had believed that the Reformation was an offshoot of the Renaissance.  Burns mechanically states reasons to  disprove this.  Leaders of the Reformation believed in faith and conformity whereas leaders of the Renaissance believed in reason and tolerance.  Rather than just focusing on only the good or bad effects of the Reformation, Burns discusses both.  Presenting each position, allows the reader to form their own opinions based on the facts outlined.  However, Burns believes that the Reformation had profound and necessary effects.  There is no doubt that the church required reforming and education needed to be advocated.  However, thousands of people lost their lives due to the Reformation.  Although its intentions were good, I believe that many of the results of the Reformation were unpleasant.

Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1991.  

Cameron discusses the differences in religion between the masses and the elites.  The majority of commoners were “less worried about saving their souls, than about everyday security.” (10) A much larger emphasis was placed on salvation by the elites than the peasants.  Much of the concerns of people during the Reformation dealt with the interpretation of the Scriptures as well as who could interpret them.  There was a movement during these times to decrease the dependency of the population on people of the church to offer interpretations of the Bible and the Scriptures.  Almost all aspects of church doctrine, such as the sacraments, became subject to increased attention during this time.  Establishing reforms within the Catholic Church was no easy matter because the traditions of the church were so firmly rooted in history.  It took a great amount of effort to institute the reforms.  Cameron also provides motives for establishing reforms such as the greed of the nobility or the appeal of reforms to the lower classes.      

Cameron states, “This book is not a history of Europe in the Reformation period, but of the Reformation movements themselves.”  He explains further “ it is a history of movements rather than a biography of a small number of individuals.” (Preface ix) This focus on the macrocosm as opposed to the microcosm gives the reader a general sense of the upheaval of the times and an understanding of the environment that would allow the Reformation to begin.  There are times when his vocabulary is intricate.  However, discussing a historical subject often requires the use of a specialized language and it can be at times difficult to understand.  His meticulous analysis of the underlying principals that began the Reformation provides easily understood reasons as to why the Reformation began.  With the focus of my research paper dealing with the effects of the Reformation, it offers little help in that area.  Understanding how it began did prove invaluable, however.

Hillerbrand, Hans J. “The German Reformation and the Peasants’ War.” The Social History of the Reformation. Ed. Lawrence P. Buck and Jonathan W. Zophy. Columbus : Ohio State University Press, 1972. 106-136.  

Hillerbrand’s focus of the article is to analyze the relationship between the Reformation and the peasant uprising in Germany .  His intent is to “explore the possible echo of the proclamation of Luther and the other reformers in the writings of the peasants.” (107) Luther’s argument of religious equality for all men can be applied to the peasants through the idea that men began to hold the belief that they were also equal in other aspects.  Although Luther discussed numerous social and political grievances, he neglected to offer solutions to problems.  He felt solutions were best left to be decided by the “experts” of society.  The omission of solutions left the general public vying to develop answers themselves.  The most common response included violence.  Even though pamphlets of the time called for religious reform, reforms concerning politics were also commonly intertwined in this literature.  Peasant documents not only restated the concerns of Luther, but also began to include the demand for freedoms abused by their lords.  Hillerbrand summarizes his work claiming “German society had been made restless and turbulent through Luther’s proclamation.” (126) It is Hillerbrand’s belief that the Reformation was not the sole cause of the peasant uprising but merely a catalyst.           

Through well-defined and logically ordered arguments, Hans Hillerbrand supports his thesis.  He not only includes quotes from Luther, peasants, and other leading Reformation leaders, but also adds insightful analysis to support his argument for each.  He begins with a discussion of Luther’s main viewpoints and then begins to connect this concept with the actions of the peasants.  Tables and other historical data are included to further support his stand.  In one such table, a descriptive summary of peasant grievances is analyzed in order to support the argument that roughly one third of all peasant grievances began to also include religious matters.  However, in some arguments, Hillerbrand only contends that a connection between Luther and the peasants’ grievances was “possible.”  He fails to provide enough evidence to support this assertion.

Holl, Karl. The Cultural Significance of the Reformation. Trans. John H. Lichtblau, Karl Hertz, Barbara Hertz. Cleveland and New York : The World Publishing Company, 1962.  

Although it is titled The Cultural Significance of the Reformation, Holl’s work is more of a descriptive analysis and application of the beliefs of Martin Luther.  Holl first presents the fundamental concepts of the Reformation and of Luther, particularly his views about work and the community.  Workers should be conscious of the results of their work and their connection to God and their neighbors and as a result feel the joys of their work.  The idea of community to Luther would be perfectly free but most intimate and productive.  The community was primary and an individual should be a contributing member.  The second chapter is devoted to the application of Luther’s beliefs to the individual and the state. The state is discussed as “superior to the individual will” and as “an institution which served to direct all the efforts of the people.” (53) However, Luther did believe there was a set of rigid limits on the absolute power of the state.  It was Luther’s belief as well, a belief rigidly opposed by Calvin, another leader during the Reformation, of armed resistance by an individual to change the system of the time.  The remaining chapter is dedicated to the analysis of the Reformation on education, history, philosophy and other cultural aspects.  Luther promoted the establishment of schools for children, both boys and girls.  Although education in these schools was largely religious oriented, however, general knowledge was still taught and practiced.  During the Reformation, there was a sense of obligation to examine original historical sources and determine their factual content.           

As described in the introduction, this work was created by a “historian engaged in the effort to understand Luther’s thought and work in the context of the sixteenth century.” (9) He recognizes the importance of analyzing differing views of similar points.  Holl, when he discusses a view held by Luther, states, “It is necessary, however, to distinguish [Luther’s concept of work] from later distortions.” (33) Holl presents his ideas in a clear and logical manner beginning with the discussion of Luther’s beliefs and then the application of the beliefs to the political system of the time.  His clear and concise writing ability creates a work with a stable flow.  However, Holl frequently includes assertions concerning Luther’s beliefs that only Luther himself could make.  Holl often theoretically proposes as well as answers questions from Luther’s perspective.  This takes away from the validity of his argument because a response refuting his answer could be proposed just as easily.  In its entirety, however, Holl’s work reflects his efforts.  He spends a great deal of time presenting and countering arguments pertaining to Luther.  His use of quotes by earlier historical writers on the Reformation such as Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch also solidifies his arguments.  Holl believes that Luther had the most profound impact on the Reformation.  However, I believe that although this is true, the Reformation would have occurred even without Luther’s aid.  It was only a matter of time before the population became completely dissatisfied with the Church and called for reform.

Jones, Martin D.W. The Counter Reformation: Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe . Cambridge : University Press, 1995.  

Outlining various religious beliefs of the time, Jones sets the tone of the Reformation whose religion was centered on the search for salvation.  Jones also believed that “death and the need to prepare for it loomed large in their religion and its sermons, literature, and art…” (7). Primary documents depict the feelings of the religious authorities concerning Luther.  In reference to capturing Luther and trying to force repentance, Leo X stated, “[If] he [does not repent,] declare in a public edict that he and his followers are heretics, excommunicated, and accursed.” (51). It was the church’s belief to deal with the problem at its source.  However, Jones believes that the proceedings against Luther could have been swifter, more powerful, and more effective.  His articles on the Council of Trent summarize the reformed duties of bishops, movements towards a quality clergy, and the church’s choice of a bible.  Bishops, after the Council of Trent, were required to become more connected with the masses.  They were required to give Scripture at least three times a week.  Regulations for priesthood were also strengthened.  They were obligated to have served in the office of a deacon for at least a year prior to be recommended for priesthood.  The only authentic bible was the “Latin Vulgate edition” (69).   

Jones uses primary documents throughout his text, more often than arguments of his own.  The documents do provide strong support for the viewpoints he does hold.  The language in the primary documents has been modernized in order to allow for a less difficult read.  This allows for a consistent flow to the work.  The information is regularly presented in a clear and outlined fashion.  Jones argues that the shape of internal reform was determined primarily by the pressures imposed by the Reformation.  The Catholic Church had begun reforms earlier, but the Reformation played the largest role in the reforming process.  I completely agree with Jones in this regard. However, I believe that without the Reformation, the Church would still have begun reforming itself eventually.